The Wall was not only intended as a defensive structure, protecting the civilized Roman world from the unconquered barbarians in the north, but stood as a testament of Rome’s will and might. It was a propaganda statement, but also served as a census bureau, for the Romans were meticulous record keepers, and wanted to know who was in and who was out. It was the equivalent of a modern-day protection racket, for each person who would pass through the wall was taxed; you were protected, but you would have to pay for it. And tax and trade were among the many things that defined the Roman Empire.

But now, my real education, an oral one, of the history of Hadrian’s Wall would begin by booking a personalized tour with the passionate tour guide extraordinaire, Mr. Peter Carney. My day commenced with Mr. Carney driving us 16 miles from North West England’s city of Carlisle, to a place where locals simply refer to as the Wall. His narration began almost immediately, explaining why Hadrian’s Wall was built, what it did and how it changed the course of human and technological history. But this piece of history does not begin or end with the Wall; it’s as much about the history of the Roman Empire as well as the world we live in today.

The Wall That Bears His Name

Caesar Traianus Hadrianus, Roman emperor from 117 to 138 ACE, was known for his travels throughout the empire, devoting much of his time to civil and military constructions. He was considered to be a benevolent dictator as his interventions generally went unchallenged. And this included building projects, in particular, building projects in which he had designed. Prior to the advent of Hadrian’s Wall, he constructed the Arch of Hadrian in Athens, the Temple of Venus and Roman Arch of Hadrian and rebuilt the Pantheon in Rome. Many of the world’s most famous structures and monuments may lay claim as an homage to others, but were also intended to be an homage unto oneself, where the wealthy have branded their buildings with their own names and logos, even more so today. No lists required.

Hadrian had drawn the design for his Wall without ever having visited the new Roman province of Britannia before. Prior to his arrival, the province had suffered a major rebellion (119 to 121 ACE), comprising some 3,000 soldiers. This might have had something to do about his arrival in Britannia in 122 ACE, but most sources have indicated that it was really more for him to see the early construction of his Wall and then to revise it, and perhaps revise it again.

It was a herculean task to construct the Wall, almost unimaginable in its day, where Roman masons and auxiliary were relentlessly challenged by harsh windswept fields, wide rivers and rolling hills that were not conducive to Hadrian’s initial plans. But Hadrian and his builders, like the Roman Empire itself, could not be stopped, making brilliant use of local geographical features. The well-known Central Sector ran 12 miles along the crags, with the east Wall placed on a long ridge running eastwards to Newcastle, while the west Wall was often located on shorter ridges, allowing views of the north to improve the mobility of the army in the event of Celtic attacks in the frontier.

There is still no conclusive evidence to determine when Hadrian’s Wall was actually completed. An inscription suggests that at least one part of Wall was finalized around 128 ACE, six years after Hadrian left Britannia. He never saw what is believed to be the finished Wall, the Wall that bears his name… but his name and Wall will always remain the same.

Julius Caesar and Britannia

The first direct Roman contact with Britannia began when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BCE, believing the Britannic people were helping the Gallic resistance in what is today’s France. The first expedition was more of a reconnaissance one than a full invasion, only gaining a foothold on the coast of Kent, a county in South East England, unable to advance further due to storm damage to his ships. Despite what he thought was a failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in honor of Caesar’s achievement of obtaining hostages and pacifying small tribes. The second invasion involved a substantially larger force where Caesar coerced many of the tribes to pay tribute in return for peace. This concluded with the surrender of the warlord, Cassivellaunus, and the installation of the more Roman-friendly king, Mandubracius. Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but established new trade partners and brought Britannia into Rome’s sphere of influence.

Remember Vindolanda

The Vindolanda site today contains a modern world-class museum using the latest interpretation techniques which convey the mysteries of Roman life at the Wall. The Vindolanda Writing Tablets, thin slivers of wood covered in unique Latin scribble, were found in the oxygen-free deposits, buried beneath the wooden fort’s floor. They are the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain.

In 2018 the museum was extended with an underworld gallery, housing collections of 2,000-year-old artifacts, which included everything from a wooden toilet seat to a children’s toy sword.

It could be a cold and lonely life for a Roman soldier stationed at Vindolanda, where heavy rains and chilling winds would often be a daily occurrence. Many of the solders had arrived from the warm climate of the highy populated Italian Peninsula, and for new Roman commanders and their families, it was akin to a blunt slap in the face in comparison to their early life of luxury in the capital city of Rome.

Vindolanda has attracted archaeological attention for more than a century, but many mysteries still surround it. Students and amateur archeologists volunteer their time and money for digs and lodging during the summer, but often never make it in due to the long list applicant

Claudius, the last person considered to be an Emperor

Emperor Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was born August 10 BCE at Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France). He was the first Roman Emperor be born outside of Italy, and was ridiculed throughout his life by speaking a rustic form of Latin. His pedigree came from the Julio-Claudian dynasty; Claudius from his father’s side, Julian from his mother’s side of the family. The mocking Claudius received upon speaking rudimentary Latin was not unusual, for he had been ridiculed most of life. At a young age, due to sickness, he had a limp and slight deafness, and was ostracized by his family and kept hidden from the Roman aristocratic eye. In a sense, this was was good for him, for potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat, thus saving him from the fate of assassinations and purges of earlier powerful Romans. By the time of Claudius’ adolescent years, his physical symptoms seemed to subside, and Rome’s senators and patricians began to notice his intelligence and scholarly interests. Nevertheless, Claudius did he best to remain out of view, pleased that there was no hope for advancement, which was exactly what he did not want.

But the new emperor, Caligula, his relative, did recognize Claudius to be of some use as a historian, and appointed him as his co-consul in 37 ACE to inflate the memory of Caligula’s deceased father, Germanicus. After Caligula’s assassination, despite Claudius hiding as an act of survival, he was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard, as the last adult male of his family.

As an emperor, Claudius was considered to be fair and and efficient. He constructed new roads, aqueducts and canals across the Roman empire, and restored its finances after the excesses of Caligula’s reign. He issued new reformations; ranging from the mandatory death of a slave owner who kills his own slave, to public flatulation, believing it will lead to a healthful life.

But the manifestations of Claudius’ new physical condition were difficult to ignore: his head shook and his body buckled under weak knees. He slobbered and stammered when under stress, making his speech almost incomprehensible. Historians assume his stress was from the fear of his own assassination. Several coup attempts had already been made during the first year of his realm, and he was aware that it could happen at any moment. And so he did everything in his power not to offend his armies; rewarding the Praetorian Guard with coins and tributes, and resorting to bribery to secure loyalty. One of the major themes of the Roman Empire was expansionism, and Claudius made an important calculated decision: keep the generals busy and hide them from the Roman capital by sending them off to distant lands to conquer. And one of those distant lands was an island off the western coast of Europe which Julius Caesar had named Britannia.

In 43 ACE, Claudius sent the general and politician, Aulus Plautius, with four legions to Britannia, under the guise of an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him a massive army and reinforcements, which also included elephants, an unknown beast that had a demoralizing effect on the enemy. Claudius knew that no people could ever withstand the might of the Romans with their highly trained centurions, legionaries and auxiliary who would march into battle with precision, as a unit in tortoise shell formations, using advanced technical warfare, so advanced that the Celts had never even seen such a force before. It was akin to a Martian landing for the local tribes, witnessing Roman legionaries jumping from their fleet of vessels into rough waters, and then swimming fully dressed in heavy steel armor, carrying swords and supplies, prepared to battle the second they walked on the shore.

Emperor Claudius, whose dominionship began in 41 ACE, was murdered by poison in year 54, perhaps due to a conspiracy between the senate and the Praetorian Guard, but some assumed it was by his 4th and final wife, Agrippina.

The Final Conquest

The Roman conquest of Britannia finally ended under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola in 84 ACE, with the Roman armies’ slaughter of the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Celtic casualties were estimated to be upwards of 10,000 and about 360 on the Roman side. The battle ended the forty-year conquest of Britannia, a conquest that saw approximately 250,000 Celtic people killed. Thus, the new province of Romano-Britannia was officially born with Aulus Plautius as the first governor of the new province.

Things Change

From 43 to ACE 410, in the Roman province of Britannia, all people became Romanized and enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship. And Britannia’s former landscape, which had once consisted of broken paths, crumbling stick homes and savage Celtic warriors with only blue tattoos covering their bodies, became endowed with Romano-Britannic culture. Their world transitioned to a network of 1,500 Roman roads, some still used today, leading to well-planned city centers and forums with monumental architecture held together with the Roman invention of concrete. Fountains, bathhouses, arenas for music, plays and poetry flourished throughout the new province. Aqueducts fed new homes with running water for bathing, indoor sewage, and some with heated floors. And through trade, Rome’s new citizens would be introduced to unknown spices, unique tools and mechanics. People who lived in rural areas discovered new forms of agriculture, grains and advanced methods of farming. In times of famine, it was no longer necessary to raid a nearby tribe or neighbor to survive.

The new Romanized people were allowed to live and travel wherever they liked without any form of confliction, as did Roman citizens who settled in Roman Britannia, bringing new ideas and new cultures from the far corners of the empire. And they were all protected by the Wall which Hadrian had built.

Roman Emperor Constantine I: The Edict of Milan

In the year 313 ACE, Roman Emperor Constantine I, along with the Emperor Lininius, who controlled the Balkans, issued the Edict of Milan, a proclamation that promised religious tolerance and freedom to be a Christian to all of citizens of Rome. Constantine kept his word, where he himself converted to Christianity, and became known as the ‘First Christian Emperor,’ though many assumed he didn’t actually understand what it meant. Nevertheless, he is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity, and considered responsible for introducing this new religion to mainstream Roman culture, a culture who had once thought Christianity was just another new Jewish cult, this one dedicated to a man named Jesus who had once lived in an obscure part of the Roman world. Now, when new Christianized Roman legionaries arrived at the northen frontier, Christian Crosses were embedded on their shields, and the soldiers were morally shaken upon finding that the barbarity of druids, the high Celtic priests, actually preformed human sacrifices. As Rome transition Britannica to Christianity, as they had done to much of the known world, Constantine transitioned the Christian day of worship to Sunday.

Antonine’s Wall

Antonine’s Wall was a turf wall built on stones, initially intended to be Romano-Britannia’s furthest northern defense fortification and replace Hadrian’s Wall. But it was abandoned eight years after completion, when the Roman legions withdrew to Hadrian’s Wall in 162 ACE. The Caledonians north of the Wall were never fully defeated or occupied. The Roman sentiment was basically: ‘Why even bother with these savages, there’s really nothing up there anyway.’ Today tours are readily available to Antonine’s Wall, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  

And in the end…

The Romano-Britannic province all seemed to work until it didn’t, when most of the Roman army pulled out to deal with far more important matters, such as to curtail invasions in Germania from the Franks, the Alemanni, the Goths and the Sarmatians, who stood at Rome’s doorsteps. The Western Roman Empire, whose empire had once spread from the damp gray of Britannia to the deserts of Arabia and to the river banks of the Nile, would eventually fall and become another empire, the Holy Roman Empire, with the Frankish king, Charlemagne, as its emperor.

The Romano-Britannic citizens were left with a scattering of Roman military with little real form of real protection from which would soon come from the remaining barbaric Celts in the north, the war-like Vikings of Scandinavia, the conquering pagan Saxons and Angles from Germania, endless tribal wars, a new Germanic language and a new Germanic name for their island: Angland.

John Clayton: The Savior of Hadrian’s Wall

John Clayton (1792-1890) was a lawyer, an antiquarian and the town clerk of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. During Clayton’s youth, his father purchased an 18th-century country mansion in Humshaugh, Northumberland, adjacent to Hadrian’s Wall. The ruins of the 2,000-year-old Roman fort, Cilurnum, ran through its front garden. Clayton enjoyed exploring and digging around the fort to the point of becoming an amateur archeologist. But, he became annoyed upon seeing local people loading the Wall’s stones into wheelbarrows for reusage in constructing their own buildings. This was not unusual for much the world was built from reusage, which included the stones and marble from the Roman Forum that helped build the Rome and Vatican City of today. But for Clayton, when his own stones were taken from his own property, it was something he could not bare.

John Clayton, due to his successful lawyer-ship, had become wealthy and began purchasing large portions of the Wall and forts, and preserved them by placing sods of grass on their top. At the time of his passing, Clayton owned five forts as well as most of the Wall within 20-miles of his residence.  I was informed by Mr. Carney that when we see contemporary maps dotted with English city names that end with: ‘-caster,’ ‘-cester’ and ‘-chester,’ it is an indication that the city was once the site of a Roman military camp or fort. Another example how the Roman world still affect us today.

Perhaps this obituary about John Clayton says it best:

He strove to become the Wall’s possessor. By purchasing these sites, he brought them under his protection. He stopped quarrying near to the Wall, forbade the use of Roman stone for new buildings, and moved buildings away from the archaeology. Today, he’s remembered as ‘The Savior of Hadrian’s Wall.’

Hadrian’s Wall Guided Walks with Peter Carney

Below is not a paid sponsorship for a Peter Carney Hadrian’s Wall Tour. It is an important suggestion to join one of his tours, and your memory will be enhanced, just as mine has, where the memory of my own tour is carried with me each day.

Contact: pe*********@ha***************.com
Website: www.hadrianswall-walk.com

POST SCRIPTUM: A few things that Julius Caesar left to the world

July, the Julian Calendar, Czar / Kaiser/ Cezary in Polish / Cezar in Romanian / César in French and Spanish / Caesarism / HMS Caesar / Caesarsboom (Caesar’s Tree).

For the Caesar Salad, however, it’s best to swing down to Old Mexico and visit Caesar’s Restaurant in Tijuana, and you’ll see its birthplace and how it was created by the Italian immigrant, Mr. Cesare Cardini, ninety-nine years ago. Here’s the history of Caesar Cardini’s Iconic Caesar Salad by T-Boy Food Critic, Audrey Hart.

‘Hail Caesar’ is a phrase that was used in the Roman Empire as a greeting, a way of showing respect to Julius Caesar. But after the phrase traveled to Germany and transition to ‘Heil Hitler,’ it appears to be less popular today.

PPS: Barbarian

You might have noticed that I use the term, ‘Barbarian,’ a number of times in the text. I’m aware that once a new word or names goes out to the world, over time it takes on a new meaning with different people. I studied the etymology of ‘Barbarian’ within the context of the Roman Empire. It means, during the life of the Imperial Western Roman Empire, any person regardless of race, religion and ethnicity was branded a barbarian if they did not adhere to Greco-Roman culture. But, looking at the name within the context of the ancient Athenian world, it means: any person who did not speak Greek, spoke an incomprehensible language which sounded similar to a noise that a sheep makes: ‘bah bah, bar bar, barbarian.

To see the first three installments in the series, visit:

What’s New and Old in London, Part I
What’s New and Old in London, Part 2
What’s New & Old in England’s North

The post Hadrian’s Wall: All Roads Really do Lead to Rome appeared first on Traveling Archive.

The sound of the tracks was calming as my railway car glided effortlessly through Northern England’s breathtaking countryside. Watching the miles pass from a train window allows a perspective that is not offered by plane travel. And now, heading to Carlisle in Cumbria, nothing else seemed to matter besides the little farms, lakes and villages dotting the sweeping green fields of England’s North. My spell was slightly broken when an elderly gentleman beside me, offered a soft-spoken narrative of its history, a history where the gentle green fields were once soaked in the color of red. Yes, the conquerors and the conquered: the Celts, the Romans, the Angles and Saxons, the Vikings, the Normans and the Boarder Reivers; who had all shed their fair share of blood in the northern fields. But it was still difficult to imagine with Northern England’s ethereal landscape before my eyes.

It felt good to rest; after all I had packed it in for the last two weeks in London: The British Museum, the Tates, the Garden Museum; the Churchill War Rooms; The East End; Macbeth at the Globe, plays in the West End, along with a considerable amount of pub grub and pints of bitters. And, in the next three days it would be Carlisle, its city center, museums, cathedral and castle.

Carlisle, Cumbria, England – A Cathedral City

Upon my arrival at the Carlisle railway station, I noticed the towering twin drum bastions at the Citadel built by Henry VIII in 1541. The guidebooks said that it was essential to spend at least a few days at this historic Cumbrian city, and the Citadel seemed to promise that I would. Carlisle, spoken locally as ‘ka-rlail’ or ‘KAR-lyle,’ is located in the county of Cumbria, England, and has the distinction of being a cathedral city – a title granted by the monarch of the United Kingdom awarded to a town in the UK having a cathedral within its bounds.

The early history of Carlisle stems from its establishment as a Roman settlement to serve forts along Hadrian’s Wall. Carlisle – the Latin name of ‘Luguvalium’ – was the most northwestern settlement in the Roman Empire; an important frontier town on the edge of its empire.

Later, due to its proximity to the Anglo-Scottish border, Carlisle became an important military stronghold in the Middle Ages. Then new migrants from as far away as Wales and Cornwall poured into Cumbria to toil in its rich mines of iron ore and copper. Carlisle transitioned again as a bustling industrialized town of factories at the advent of WW1. The Border City took a hit with the closure of its industries. But it eventually rebounded as a mecca for tourism, a mecca which included a well-designed Downtown Historic Center with museums, antiques and art galleries; the imposing Carlisle Castle; the Tullie House Museum and the Carlisle Cathedral.

I found Carlisle’s younger set to be warm and welcoming, curious where you were from and why you chose to visit their city. My immediate reply was to spend a few days in Carlisle and then head off to Hadrian’s Wall for a full day. I couldn’t help but notice that some were not impressed about my plans: ‘That’s a lot of fuss for a bunch of rocks,’ ‘Not too tall, innit.’ It appeared that they had little interest in the history of the Wall, a UNESCO World Heritage site, just 33 miles or so up the road from where they live. I still don’t really know the reason why. Jealousy, perhaps? But how could it be jealousy when a tourist trip to Calisle also meant visiting the Wall. Yes, I still don’t really know the reason why.

Click here for Cumberland sausage recipe.

The weekend nights in Carlilse would explode with excitement, in particular when one of the local sports teams won an important match. Post-adolescent groups of men and women would charge from pub to pub, leaving only a trail of vape smoke behind them. Their selection of clothes worn served almost as if they were on a runway, illustrating the current Carlisle fashion trends of the day, which were confirmed with each style almost identical to the next.

Downtown Historic Carlisle Center

The Downtown Historic Carlisle Center was within walking distance of my lodging property, The Halston Hotel Carlisle, whose manager and staff were never too busy to point out local attractions. It was recommended that a good way to start a self-guided tour is a stop at the Cumberland Valley Visitors Center, which features maps, brochures and a very informative staff.

Next was the Carlisle Historical Society at the Heald House Museum, which also offered a wide-eyed lens on all things Carlisle. With its Old Town Hall clock tower and market cross, and the array of cafes, art and antique galleries, made it clear that history and culture defined the Downtown Carlisle Center of today. And, just a short drive outside of downtown is the Carlisle Barracks, that features more than 100 historic buildings, 22 of which are listed on the British National Historic Register. It was suggested that I should end my day-long journey by visiting the Trout Gallery at Dickinson College.

CARLISE CASTLE

Carlisle Castle, located on the edge of the downtown center, is a restored medieval fortress; the site of many sieges, public executions and political discourses throughout its 930-year-old history. Like Carlisle itself, it was built on the former Roman site of Luguvalium, during the reign of William II of England, the son of William the Norman Conqueror. The castle has been besieged ten times – more than any other place in the British Isles. Its walls were predominantly made with grey and red sandstone, and overall constructed in the Norman style of a Motte-and-Bailey castle; raised earthwork is called a ‘motte,’ and ‘bailey’ means an enclosed courtyard, all surrounded by a protective ditch and sharpened vertical stakes or palisade.

During its tumultuous history, the castle changed hands many times between the English and Scotts. It also served as protection from the Border Reivers, malicious bands of cattle rustlers who would kill anyone in their way, sometimes just for the fun of it. The last battle at the castle was the failed Jacobite rising of 1745 against George II. The battle marked the end of the castle’s years of fighting, for defending the border between England and Scotland was no longer necessary as both countries once again flew under the same British flag. But the real final act of bloodshed at the castle was the mass execution of Jacobite prisoners, with those remaining either shipped to the West Indies as slaves or banished in exile. Charles Edward Stuart, the proud Bonnie Prince Charlie, who had united the Highland Clans and orchestrated the rebellion, avoided capture by hiding in modest Highland homes, eventually sailing to safety in France, disguised as a woman.

As we parked our rental in the car park, we spent a few minutes trying to understand what a large sign meant: ‘No Fly Tipping.’ We were approached by a kind family from Houston, who were also curious to its meaning. But then I remembered that we had a small mechanical device in our pockets, and by simply accessing it found that it meant ‘no illegal garbage dumbing’: ‘Fly’ originates from ‘on the fly’, i.e., an act carried out while on the run, while ‘Tipping’ refers to dumping your rubbish at a ‘council tip.’ And these are the people who gave 25% of the world’s population the English language. Once the confusion was settled, we strolled to the castle, and the sun was out and the well-manicured lush green grass made it hard to believe that this gentle piece land was once site the of blood and carnage. The exterior of the castle, with its draw bridge, deep mott and Irish/Caldew Gate immediately grabbed my attention. Little did I know that this would be the highpoint of my tour.

Past the gate, the outer ward courtyard consisted of a large spread of unremarkable flat land which I had thought would illustrate what life was like for its occupants of the past. The guidebook stated that the courtyard was once centered on a tarmac-covered parade ground in a field of grass, and, due to its huge space gave the castle the capacity to house spectacular events of marching brigades and festivities. Yes, the garrison was still there, but I realized, like many things, this piece of history had become the history of now.

There was much restoration inside the inner walls, due to another form of besiegement: climate change. It’s a current problem in Britain today, as it is throughout the world, where historic buildings and schools are beginning to crumble. For historians, restoration is of the upmost importance, but for the fearful children and occupants inside, it is nothing less than essential. After climbing the stairway to the second floor, we had expected to explore the rooms where Richard III, Bonnie Prince Charlie and the imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots once slept. But it turned out to be one large room, though a Great One, with another sign listing the many who had once called it home. The room, however, was in period décor with a massive fireplace, tapestries and furniture; and a smaller room upstairs featured a bed where hay, sandwiched between two coarse sheets, illustrated the makings of a comfortable medieval night of sleep.

Also on the second floor was a group of carvings entrenched into the stonework. The guide book referred to them as ‘prisoners’ carvings,’ but this area of the castle was not known to have been a prison. The carvings seem more likely to be the work of members of the castle’s garrison or household, perhaps expressing loyalty to the lord warden and great local families.

For an extra price, I toured the castle’s small Cumbria’s Museum of Military Life, which showcased the history of Cumbria’s County Infantry Regiment, the Border Regiment and the King’s Own Royal Border Regiment and local Militia. The war artifacts were stimulating, but it was the narrative at each station and a short video that made it worthwhile.

The Tullie House Museum

The Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery (circa 1893) features exhibits detailing the history of the Roman occupancy and Hadrian’s Wall. The treasures inside also include zoological, botanical and geological artifacts, stringed instruments, including a violin by Andrea Amati, an art collection with works by pre-Italian renascence artists, and post-Roman history, dedicated to the Vikings and the Border Reivers.

All Roads Really Do Lead to Rome

It was at this point of my tour, I realized that everything I had seen and everything I had done all led to the Roman Empire; which is a subject I’ll address in the next installment devoted to Hadrian’s Wall.

Carlisle Cathedral

Carlisle Cathedral made a refreshing reprieve from the death and unfound glory I had experienced at Carlisle Castle. Nestled on a peaceful gated street in the city center, it was founded as an Augustinian priory and became a cathedral in 1133. It is also the seat of the Bishop of Carlisle. Over 900 years of history is on display within its stunning mix of Norman and Gothic architecture, medieval paintings, delicate carvings, intricate stained-glass windows, and most importantly, the starlight ceiling; considered the most significant architectural feature of Carlisle Cathedral. It was difficult not to feel emotionally taken while sitting beneath it during choir and worship music.

Carlisle Cathedral also has a set of 46 carved wooden choir stalls with misericords, hinged seats, “constructed to keep the monks from falling asleep while at prayers.” The pillars supporting the canopies indicate that some portions had once been burnt, some assumed to be by raiders, but actually burnt by monks who fell asleep during their long devotions while holding lighted candles. Intricate iconographic carvings in the misericords still remain with the narratives of St. Anthony the Hermit, St. Cuthbert, St. Augustine, the twelve apostles, as well as the inverted ‘world theme’ of a Woman beating a Man, which I was told that no decent set of misericords could be without.

I noticed many of the congregation during the Sunday service wore period costumes, but were not intended to be docents, simply warming to the theme of the cathedral’s past history of dress. I also noticed that this Sunday service was almost empty of occupants. Perhaps indicative of western regions now focusing more on secular ideals. But if you’re religious or not, Carlisle Cathedral is worth a visit.

POST SCRIPT: How could I have forgotten

Yes, how could I have forgotten that a few days earlier I had taken a stroll over Westminster Bridge. The 827-foot-long road and foot traffic bridge is one of 138 bridges that stretch over London’s River Thames. On its far north side rests the Houses of Parliament where it boasts the highest number of arches among all Thames bridges. Decorative ironworks showcase the symbols of parliament and the United Kingdom: the cross of Saint George, a thistle, a shield, and a rose. Octagonal Gothic lamps line the bridge, and in the middle there is a small plaque with a William Wordsworth poem, appropriately titled ‘Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802.’

But it was at this point of the day, the day before my departure to England’s North, I remembered that I’d forgotten to write about something that most tourists to London generally have on their to-do-lists: Westminster Abbey. Its Sunday service I had attended would make an interesting comparison to my later attendance at Carlisle Cathedral, which I had scheduled the following week and had written about above.

Westminster Abbey

It was difficult not to think of historic grandeur at the Anglican Westminster Abbey, the location of 40 English and British royal coronations, the burial site for 18 English, Scottish, and British monarchs, and 16 royal weddings since 1100 ACE.

I was surprised to read that the origins of the church are obscure, where it had once housed 10th century Benedictine monks, and throughout the 21st century, non-monarchical prime ministers, poet laureates, actors, scientists, military leaders, and then, most importantly, the Unknown Warrior. Yes, may we never forget. And may we also never forget the Unknown Citizen, whose death may have come from the Unknown Universal Soldier. Their pauper gravesites are not surrounded by the grandeur of Gothic style architecture, and there are no long lines of people expressing heartfelt sympathy and admiration. History generally covers only the lives of the famous and the wealthy; the rest of us are pretty much on our own.

Dissolution and Reformation: Blame it on Henry

In the 1530s, Henry VIII left the Roman Catholic Church and anointed himself the head of England’s monasteries. It was the beginning of the English Reformation, though slightly different than the Protestant Reformation which had swept through continental Europe a few decades earlier. The German-Roman Catholic priest and theologian, Martin Luther, spearheaded the movement by attacking the Papacy due to the church’s corruption. He never officially broke from the Roman Catholic Church, but the Papacy broke with him when he was excommunicated in 1521.

It should be noted that the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century was not unprecedented where reformers within the Roman Catholic Church such as St. Francis of Assisi, Valdes (founder of the Waldensians), Jan Hus, and John Wycliffe addressed similar problems in the church in the centuries before 1517.

With Henry VIII’s eventual departure from the Roman Catholic Church, it was something a little less righteous than the Protestant Reformation, where he sought to annul, not divorce as commonly assumed, his first marriage to the Spanish Catherine of Aragon. Henry had married Catherine due to the Tudor tradition of marrying the wife of an older brother. In this case, the older brother was Arthur, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of King Henry VII of England, the heir apparent of the crown. Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed, but Arthur met an untimely death at age 15, shortly after his marriage to her, a marriage that was never consummated in the bedroom.

In 1509, after Henry VIII was crowned the King of England, Catherine never produced the desired male heir for the new king, only a daughter, who would eventually become Mary I, the first undisputed English queen regant in 1553. It is believed than Henry saw his daughter just once during his lifetime, which consisted of a distant royal bow from the courtyard of Kimbolton Castle to a castle window where she faced down upon him.

Henry remained steadfast to marry a second wife. Her name was Anne Boleyn, who had been Catherine’s maid of honor, a junior attendant of a queen in the royal household. She was also pregnant with his child. The Papacy in Rome wouldn’t recognize his request, and Henry eventually had run out of options. So he he left the Roman Catholic Church, and Catherine was banished from the Royal Court, and lived out the remainder of her life at Kimbolton Castle, dying of cancer in 1536. It was a day of mourning throughout England for Catholics or not.

Anne Boleyn would eventually become Henry’s new queen consort, his second wife out of six, and after a series of miscarriages, the mother who gave birth to another little girl, this one named Elizabeth, again not the son and heir that Henry desperately wanted. The little girl, 28-years later, became Elizabeth I, the Queen of England and Ireland, the ‘Virgin Queen,’ the last monarch of the House of Tudor. The two half-sisters: Mary, a devout Catholic, and Elizabeth, a staunch Protestant, would meet again later which would end in tragedy, a tragedy still spoken about today.

Henry was well aware that the Roman Catholic Churches throughout England were riddled with corruption and flush with gold, and didn’t hesitate in fattening his own purse by taking many relics, images of saints, and treasures from the abbeys. His lust for gold reached such a fever of intensity that he melted down the golden feretory that housed the coffin of Edward the Confessor. Many parish priests were banished without a coin in their pockets; others met death from the sword.

The circumstances regarding Henry and Boleyn’s short marriage (1533 to 1536) and Boleyn’s execution by beheading for treason, still remains a mystery today. Nevertheless, Boleyn continues to be a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that marked the start of the English Reformation.

For more on Henry, visit his life at Hampton Court Palace

The monastery was dissolved in 1559 and the church was made a royal peculiar, responsible directly to the monarchy. The Abbey received a financial grant from Parliament in 1697. Sir Christopher Wren, who ultimately designed 53 London churches, including St. Paul’s Cathedral, was appointed Surveyor of the Fabric at Westminster Abbey on 1698, which allowed him to undertake major restoration of the decayed stonework of the church and its roofs.

In 1987, the abbey, together with the Palace of Westminster and St. Margaret’s Church, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site because of its historic and symbolic significance.

Stay tuned to Part 4: Hadrian’s Wall and the Roman Empire, and tour guide extraordinaire, Mr. Peter Carney. It would prove to be a holy day of a different order.

The post What’s New & Old in England’s North appeared first on Traveling Archive.

The middle of winter has long been a time of celebration around the world. Centuries before the arrival of the man called Jesus, early Europeans celebrated light and birth in the darkest days of winter. Many people rejoiced during the winter solstice, when the worst of the winter was behind them and they could look forward to longer days and extended hours of sunlight. In Rome, where winters were not as harsh as those in the far north, Saturnalia — a holiday in honor of Saturn, the god of agriculture — was celebrated.

What Is Saturnalia?

Saturnalia, the most popular holiday on the ancient Roman calendar, derived from older farming-related rituals of midwinter and the winter solstice, especially the practice of offering gifts or sacrifices to the gods during the winter sowing season.

The pagan celebration of Saturn, the Roman god of agriculture and time, began as a single day, but by the late Republic (133-31 B.C.) it had expanded to a weeklong festival beginning December 17. (On the Julian calendar, which the Romans used at the time, the winter solstice fell on December 25.)

During Saturnalia, work and business came to a halt. Schools and courts of law closed, and the normal social patterns were suspended. People decorated their homes with wreaths and other greenery, and shed their traditional togas in favor of colorful clothes known as synthesis. Gifts were exchanged. Even slaves did not have to work during Saturnalia, but were allowed to participate in the festivities; in some cases, they sat at the head of the table while their masters served them.

Instead of working, Romans spent Saturnalia gambling, singing, playing music, feasting, socializing and giving each other gifts. Wax taper candles called cerei were common gifts during Saturnalia, to signify light returning after the solstice.

On the last day of Saturnalia celebrations, known as the Sigillaria, many Romans gave their friends and loved ones small terracotta figurines known as signillaria, which may have referred back to older celebrations involving human sacrifice.

Would Christianity Have Spread Without the Romans?

With Christians hiding in catacombs and the Apostle Paul (Saul) quietly spreading the word of Christ in homes and secret locations, Roman emperors Constantine I and Licinius in February 313 A.D. issued the Edict of Milan, a proclamation that permanently established religious toleration for Christianity within the Roman Empire. Curiously, Constantine I died in 337, and apparently converted to Christianity on his deathbed without completely understanding the meaning of this new religion. It was his mother who introduced him to her ‘understanding’ of Christianity, and changed the day of worship to Sunday.

How Saturnalia Led to Christmas

The Christian holiday of Christmas, especially, owes many of its traditions to the ancient Roman festival, including the time of year Christmas is celebrated. The Bible does not give a date for Jesus’ birth; in fact, some theologians have concluded he was probably born in spring, as suggested by references to shepherds and sheep in the Nativity Story.

By holding Christmas at the same time as traditional winter solstice festivals, Roman Catholic church leaders increased the chances that Christmas would be popularly embraced, but gave up the ability to dictate how it was celebrated. In the early years of Christianity, Easter was the main holiday; the birth of Jesus was not celebrated. In the fourth century, the Roman Catholic Church decided to institute the birth of Jesus as a holiday. Unfortunately, the Bible does not mention a date for his birth, a fact Puritans later pointed out in order to deny the legitimacy of the celebration. Although some evidence suggests that his birth may have occurred in the spring, why would shepherds be herding in the middle of winter? Pope Julius I chose December 25, 336 AD as the date when Christmas was first celebrated in an effort to adopt and absorb the traditions of the pagan Saturnalia festival. First called the Feast of the Nativity, the custom spread to Egypt by 432 and to England by the end of the sixth century. By the eighth century, the celebration of Christmas had traveled all the way to Scandinavia.

On Christmas, most believers attended church, then celebrated raucously in a drunken, carnival-like atmosphere. Each year, a beggar or student would be crowned the “lord of misrule” and eager celebrants played the part of his subjects. The poor would go to the houses of the rich and demand their best food and drink. If owners failed to comply, their visitors would most likely terrorize them with mischief. Christmas became the time of year when the upper classes could repay their real or imagined “debt” to society by entertaining less fortunate citizens.

Saint Francis of Assisi & the Nativity Scene

Saint Francis of Assisi is credited with creating the first live Nativity Scene in 1223 in order to cultivate the worship of Christ. He himself had recently been inspired by his visit to the Holy Land, where he’d been shown Jesus’s traditional birthplace. The scene’s popularity inspired countries to stage similar pantomimes.

In the Christian tradition, a Nativity Scene (also known as a manger scene, crib, crèche or in Italian presepio or presepe) is the special exhibition, particularly during the Christmas season, of art objects representing the birth of Jesus.  While the term Nativity Scene may be used of any representation of the very common subject of the Nativity of Jesus in art, it has a more specialized sense referring to seasonal displays, either using model figures in a setting or reenactments called “living Nativity Scenes” (tableau vivant) in which real humans and animals participate. Nativity Scenes exhibit figures representing the infant Jesus, his mother, Mary, and her husband, Joseph.

Other characters from the Nativity Story, such as shepherds, sheep, and angels may be displayed near the manger in a barn (or cave) intended to accommodate farm animals, as described in the Gospel of Luke. A donkey and an ox are typically depicted in the scene, and the Magi and their camels, described in the Gospel of Matthew, are also included. Several cultures add other characters and objects that may or may not be Biblical.

Oliver Cromwell & the Outlaw Christmas Movement

In the early 17th century, a wave of religious reform changed the way the Roman Catholic Mass of Christ was celebrated in Protestant Reformation Europe. When tyrant Oliver Cromwell, an English soldier and statesman, who led parliamentary forces in the English Civil Wars, became lord protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1653–58), he vowed to rid the commonwealth of all decadence and banned Christmas. And, of course, it was a Roman Catholic holiday, too. Cromwell’s Puritan soldiers were sent among the streets to remove food cooking for Christmas dinners and all decorations. In Catholic Ireland it was much worse, primarily because of his brutal ethnic cleansing, euphemistically called Cromwellian Genocide.

Upon Cromwell’s death, Charles II was restored to the throne and, with him, came the return of the popular holiday.

The Pilgrims, English separatists that came to America in 1620, were even more orthodox in their Puritan beliefs than Cromwell. As a result, Christmas was not a holiday in early America. From 1659 to 1681, the celebration of Christmas was actually outlawed in Boston. Anyone exhibiting the Christmas spirit was fined five shillings. By contrast, in the Jamestown settlement, Captain John Smith reported that Christmas was enjoyed by all and passed without incident.

After the American Revolution, English customs fell out of favor, including Christmas. In fact, Christmas wasn’t declared a U.S. federal holiday until June 26, 1870.

A Christmas Carol

Also around this time, English author Charles Dickens created the classic holiday tale, A Christmas Carol. The story’s message – the importance of charity and good will towards all humankind – struck a powerful chord in the United States and England and showed members of Victorian society the benefits of celebrating the holiday.

The family was also becoming less disciplined and more sensitive to the emotional needs of children during the early 1800s. Christmas provided families with a day when they could lavish attention and gifts on their children without appearing to “spoil” them.

As some Americans began to embrace Christmas as a perfect family holiday, old customs were unearthed. People looked toward recent immigrants and Catholic and Episcopalian churches to see how the day should be celebrated. In the next 100 years, Americans built a Christmas tradition all their own that included pieces of many other customs, including decorating trees, sending holiday cards, and gift-giving.

Irving Reinvents Christmas

It wasn’t until the 19th century that Americans began to completely realize Christmas, where they re-invented the celebration, and changed it from a raucous carnival holiday into a family-centered day of peace and nostalgia. But why did the 1800s peak American interest in the holiday?

Well, it was a period of class conflict and turmoil in the U.S. Unemployment was high and gang rioting by the disenchanted classes often occurred during the Christmas season. In 1828, the New York City council instituted the city’s first police force in response to a Christmas riot. This catalyzed certain members of the upper classes to begin to change the way Christmas was celebrated in America.

In 1819, American author Washington Irving wrote The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon, a series of stories about the celebration of Christmas in an English manor house. The sketches feature a squire who invited the peasants into his home for the holiday. In contrast to the problems faced in American society, the two groups mingled effortlessly. In Irving’s mind, Christmas should be a peaceful, warm-hearted holiday bringing groups together across lines of wealth or social status. Irving’s fictitious celebrants enjoyed “ancient customs,” including the crowning of a Lord of Misrule. Irving’s book, however, was not based on any holiday celebration he had attended – in fact, many historians say that Irving’s account actually “invented” tradition by implying that it described the true customs of the season.

Happy Holidays, Season’s Greetings – Another Kind of War on Christmas?

“Season’s greetings” is a greeting more commonly used as a motto on winter season greeting cards, and in commercial advertisements, than as a spoken phrase. In addition to “Merry Christmas,” Victorian Christmas cards bore a variety of salutations, including “compliments of the season” and “Christmas greetings.” In the late 19th century, “with the season’s greetings” or simply “the season’s greetings,” began appearing on cards. By the 1920s it had been shortened to “season’s greetings,” and has been a greeting card fixture ever since. Several White House Christmas cards, including U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower‘s 1955 card, have featured the phrase.

Facing a confrontation for the good natured greeting to a stranger of “Happy Holidays,” is the antithesis  of the Christmas spirit. As one victim pointed out, it’s closer to Ebenezer Scrooge’s “Bah, Humbug” than a defense of the phrase “Merry Christmas.” In the past several years, there has been an open movement against the presumed secular phrase of “Happy Holidays.”

Perhaps, we have forgotten that “Happy Holidays” is a deviation of the Roman Catholic greeting of  “Happy Holy Days.” So what’s so unholy about that? “Merry Christmas also stems from the Roman Catholic “Mass of Christ.”

Saying “Happy Holidays” can also be used as a term of respect when one doesn’t know the religious convictions of a a stranger. We want the season to be all-inclusive period where everyone has fun.

Although many U.S. contemporary families falsely believe they are celebrating Christmas as how it had been done for centuries, Americans had actually re-invented a holiday to fill the cultural needs of a growing nation.

And, with that said: Happy Holidays to all!

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